especially for marginalized communities, where barriers to accessing health care and supportive services are often high and toxic stress is commonplace. Home visiting programs aim to support caregivers and strengthen care-giving practices at home to enhance connections between caregivers and children. A systematic review of the outcomes produced by home visiting programs showed numerous positive changes (Kendrick et al, 2000). Other research by RAND showed that each $1 invested in Nurse Family Partnership nurse visits to low-income, unmarried mothers, produced $5.70 in benefits. Home visits are often conducted by professional visitors, including nurses and social workers, but can also be delivered by trained lay people.

Additional resources: Health Resources and Services Administration, Maternal and Child Health, American Psychological Association

There are numerous evidence-based examples of parent education programs, with the most effective focused on building family protective factors like positive communication, support, and spending time together (University of Wisconsin-Madison Extension, 2008).

Additional resources: What Works Wisconsin, Parent Education and Support Programs (Douglas, 1990)

Parenting support groups can increase parents’ support networks, confidence, and ability to effectively problem-solve and cope with stress (Gay, 2005), all of which contributes to improved parent-child relationships. Some also provide referrals and concrete supports for low-income parents.

Additional resources: Building the Evidence for Circle of Parents, U.S. DHHS Making Meaningful Connections

Family resource centers serve as community hubs for families. They offer an array of services and opportunities to help parents build support networks and increase parenting knowledge and confidence (Finn-Stevenson et al, 2009).

Additional resources: Family Resource Centers: Vehicles for Change

A more intensive option for families, especially those with children with important risk factors for violence. Multisystemic Therapy is one commonly used, highly effective program. In the MST model, therapists work with youth within the broader context in which they live, including visiting with families in their homes and visiting children’s schools.

Additional resources: Parent-Child Connectedness: Implications for Research, Interventions, And Positive Impacts on Adolescent Health

Includes formal and informal community networks designed to support and strengthen families. Evaluation of such systems has demonstrated the ability to strengthen families and reduce referrals for child neglect and abuse (First 5 LA).

Additional resources: Community Café